School of Government · Te Kura Kāwanatanga: Institute for Governance and Policy Studies: Working and Policy Papers

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The Institute for Governance and Policy Studies (IPS) fosters discussion, research and publication of current issues of domestic and foreign policy. We particularly link academic research and public policy by providing opportunities for independent and detached study, and for neutral and informed discussion of important and relevant issues. Our goal is to engage the broadest possible range of informed opinion, particularly in drawing people together from the universities, the public service, the business community and the wider public community. Our three catchwords might be summed up as study, engage, inform.

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Open Access
New Zealand and its Small Island Neighbours: A Review of New Zealand Policy Toward the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, Kiribati and Tuvalu
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 1984) Bertram, I.G.; Watters, R.F.
In 1984 the Ministry of Foreign affairs and trade commissioned the Institute of Policy Studies to conduct a wide-ranging review of New Zealand policy in the South Pacific. Five cases were selected for study: three sub-national jurisdictions linked to New Zealand (Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau) and two sovereign independent nations (Kiribati and Tuvalu). The report draws together the results of extensive field research, a major literature review, long-run data analysis, and over 150 interviews with key informants. Its analysis of economic development and aid led to the original formulation of the now-familiar and widely-cited “MIRAB” (migration-remittances-aid-bureaucracy) model of economic development in small islands. After analysing the issues surrounding constitutional evolution of New Zealand’s former island territories in the Pacific, the report proposed a revival of the concept of sub-national jurisdictions in the small-island context, and identified the risks associated with emergence of an opportunistic political elite in the process of “decolonisation”.
Open Access
Funding Our Culture
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2000) James, Colin
Many successive governments have funded the arts, cultural activities and heritage. Every now and then someone asks why or says it is not governments’ business. But their voices evaporate into the ether. The questions are not whether there should be state funding but what taxpayers should fund, how much, how and on what criteria. Governments have answered the ‘what’ and the ‘how much’ with their chequebooks and have de facto answered the ‘how’. But on each count there has been much criticism. And the criteria are murky: sometimes funding is on thinly disguised pork-barrel principles. Shouldn’t it be more rigorous? The Public Finance Act is more than 10 years old. These are the days of fiscal prudence, value for money and attention to outcomes. Departments are supposed to tie their spending to a specified goal. Isn’t it time clear rules were stated by which arts, culture and heritage funding is allocated? Moreover, the range of activities to which funding is directed is very wide: national and cultural identity, heritage and preservation, access to and participation in cultural activities, community development, quality of life and artistic productions. Each is treated separately, with no discernible overall strategy. Funding often follows the ‘fly-paper’ principle: what was funded last year or 10 years ago will be funded again this year.To discuss these issues and look for ways forward, the Institute of Policy Studies convened on 24 and 31 March 2000 four half-day roundtable forums with invited specialists, The forums were sponsored principally by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage and also by Creative New Zealand, the New Zealand Film Commission and the Museum of New Zealand/Te Papa Tongarewa. They were not intended to produce definitive recommendations; rather, to explore ideas. The forums adopted as a basis for their discussions a restricted definition of culture, the one used by the Ministry in its 1999 publication, The Government’s Role in the Cultural Sector: A Survey of the Issue: “celebrating, promoting or preserving our cultural heritage and the arts”. Though the forums also kept in the back of the mind the wider sense the Ministry also used of “every kind of phenomenon which gives a significance and integrity to our way of life” and occasionally referred to this wider concept of culture, the business end of the discussion was on the narrower definition. This did not, however, restrict discussion to ‘high culture’. The themes that emerged from the forums are outlined in this brief. They are a report by the programme director of wide-ranging and at times vigorous conversations, including their salient points. In this report are also recorded many expressions of opinion, some by individuals, some by several participants, often contested. No opinion or statement should be taken as a conclusion or position of the forums or any individual participant but only as ideas for debate. Nevertheless, as a background against which to set these distillations, perhaps two baselines might be suggested: • Funding policy should have the whole population in mind, not just those involved in or particularly interested in arts, culture and heritage. • Funding should be only for ‘externalities’, the benefits to society of an artistic, cultural or heritage activity These two baselines presume that governments act on behalf of all the people and that any funds directed to an individual or a sector of society must in some way benefit the whole of society. If the benefit to the whole of society is low, the funding would logically also be low, and if no benefit to the whole of society can be identified then a government logically would not fund that activity. A third, operational, guideline might be that there should be no direct funding of individuals or performing arts companies. To say that, however, is not to say much. Assessing and quantifying ‘externalities’ is a complex exercise of judgment, unavoidably highly inexact and open to challenge on economic, sociological and political grounds, all of which are constantly shifting as society changes.
Open Access
Changing Gear: Delivering the Social Dividend
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2002) Grimes, Arthur; Campbell-Hunt, Colin; Wilson, Ross; Withers, Glenn; Oram, Rod
In December 2001, the Institute of Policy Studies and Business New Zealand co-hosted a one day symposium entitled ‘Changing Gear: Delivering the Social Dividend’. It was addressed and attended by members of academia, the public sector and the business sector. This IPS Policy Paper brings together a number of the presentations to that symposium. It includes papers delivered by Arthur Grimes, Colin Campbell-Hunt and Ross Wilson, plus a summary of key points raised in the address by Glenn Withers, and some concluding remarks by Rod Oram.
Open Access
Watch Out for the Elephants
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2002) James, Colin
This speech was given by Colin James to the United Future conference, 16 November 2002. In it he gives a succinct account of recent New Zealand party politics, the place of niche parties, and the position of United Future.
Open Access
Environmental Taxation in New Zealand: What Place Does it Have?
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2002) Scrimgeour, Frank; Piddington, Ken
The 2001 Tax Review (McLeod et al, 2001) includes a timely discussion about the place of environmental taxation in New Zealand. The review’s discussion paper released on 20 June 2001 and the final report in October 2001 both devote a whole chapter to environmental taxation. This is not surprising given the current influence of the Greens in Parliament, the Kyoto Protocol and the enthusiasm of some analysts for using economic instruments to achieve environmental outcomes. In reviewing the academic case for environment taxation, it is appropriate to go back to the Pigouvian tradition, and its more recent interpretation by Coase, Tietenberg and others. At its simplest, an efficient Pigouvian tax and an effect regulation achieve the same outcome. The policy analyst is indifferent. However, given the range of real world circumstances, comparisons can be made between doing nothing, imposing a regulation, imposing a tax, implementing a tradeable permits system or some other policy instrument. Analysts are left to choose between instruments by comparing each instrument against a set of criteria. The Tax Review discussion paper took a cautious approach suggesting that eco-taxes are only appropriate when “damage of each unit of emissions is the same across the geographic area to which the tax applies; the volume of emission is measurable; and the marginal net damage of emissions is measurable”. At a regional level they are more optimistic, suggesting “eco-charges may be appropriate at a local level”. The review does see a real possibility for carbon taxes and notes there is no research available about the potential impact of methane taxes. The Tax Review discussion paper conclusions are driven by some critical assumptions. The authors place a tough standard as a requirement for any environmental tax. This requirement is not always or often met with regulations and other policy instruments. The authors are also concerned about taxes attenuating property rights at all levels of production. This is certainly an impact but it is an efficient impact. The authors suggest that double dividends result from the transfer of rents to the Crown and not productive efficiency. This assumption needs to be tested theoretically and empirically. The authors assume New Zealand should be slow to implement taxes as part of its response to the Kyoto protocol. This ignores the possibility that there may be gains from early adoption. Environmental taxation will continue to be an important political issue in this part of the world as evidenced by the current fuel tax enquiry in Australia. Despite its importance, the consideration of environmental taxation by the Tax Review Committee is unsatisfactory. Further analysis is required which considers the performance of environmental taxation against other instruments used to achieve government goals. This paper provides some history of the concept of environmental taxation as a framework for further research to address the issues raised by the Taxation Review 2001. This paper should form a basis for further work in New Zealand examining specific opportunities for environmental and resource-use taxation.
Open Access
The Rocky Road to CER
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2003) Holmes, Frank
This paper is a history of discussions, debates and arrangements leading up to the Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relationship (CER), which was launched 20 years ago. While a large volume to celebrate the anniversary has been published by the Australian and New Zealand governments, in fact the events covered by this official publication were preceded by another 20 years or so of negotiations, debates and discussions, some unofficial and some official, on both sides of the Tasman. While the author of this policy paper was never an official negotiator, he was a major driving force behind the arguments for a regional free trade area, and this account of what led up to CER has not only historical validity and depth of detail but also personal acuity and insight.
Open Access
Negotiating Without Bargaining Power: A Review of ‘New Zealand’s Trade Policy Odyssey’
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2003) Holmes, Frank
This review focuses on a recent publication from the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research: Chris Nixon and John Yeabsley (2002) New Zealand’s Trade Policy Odyssey: Ottawa, via Marrakech, and On, Research Monograph 68, Wellington: NZIER. It attempts to add value to this useful monograph through additional reflections on lessons from past experience on addressing the central issue of “how best does a small open economy on the edge of the world conduct its trade, and particularly its trade policy, in an efficient and effective manner?” It illustrates the dangers of paralysis of decision-making through excessive political concern about achieving consensus. The growing importance of services, multinational organisations and environmental issues in international trade negotiations increases the complexity of the issues facing negotiators. So too does the increasing significance of bilateral and regional arrangements in the policies of important trading partners, many of them still wedded to high protection for agriculture. The review discusses the implications of these changes. It discusses the contributions nongovernmental organisations have made, and can make, to extending the effectiveness of official negotiators, for example, in research and in the processes of negotiation, and how they can be most effectively harnessed. It also raises issues arising from the changing nature of the debate about effective government assistance to domestic producers engaged in trade, and whether the public sector needs to reconsider the structure and methods of coordination of the official agencies involved in trade negotiation.
Open Access
New Zealand in the World Economy 1938–56
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2004) Holmes, Frank
While sorting through some old papers recently, I came across a paper that I had completed, probably early in 1957, on ‘New Zealand in the World Economy 1938-56’. This had been intended to be a contribution to a book on ‘Contemporary New Zealand’, on which a group of us at Victoria University College were collaborating – Ken Scott, Kingston Braybrooke, Winston Monk and myself being the main contributors. Tragically, Winston was killed in an aircraft crash at Singapore early in 1954. I became involved in assisting a Royal Commission in 1955. The other contributors also became involved with tasks of higher priority. Accordingly, the project was never completed, and my paper was never published. Economic historians to whom I showed the paper have encouraged me to publish it now, with a brief introduction and minor modifications to avoid misunderstandings about the timing of events. Thinking back to the period during which this piece was written, one of them recalled how little independent research and informed commentary on important domestic and external economic issues were going on in New Zealand at the time. The first of the Economic Surveys produced by the Treasury did not appear until 1951. The sections on the history of the financial system that Albert McGregor and I prepared for the report of the Monetary Commission, presented early in 1956, were a significant semi-official contribution. The dearth of economic research in the mid-1950s was noted by the Commission. Thanks to the efforts of Professor Horace Belshaw and some farsighted business people and officials, the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research was established in 1958. The relative lack of informed independent comment on economic issues through the New Zealand media and academic community was reflected in the decision by the National Government to set up the Monetary and Economic Council in 1961 as an independent ‘economic watchdog’. Thus the following analysis, produced in the mid-1950s, is of some intrinsic interest for its scarcity value. My qualifications for writing it had been enhanced by my having been the lesser half of the Economic Division of the External Affairs Department, under Lloyd White, from 1949 until 1952.
Open Access
The Quest for Security and Welfare in New Zealand 1938–1956
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2004) Holmes, Frank
This paper, largely written in the mid-1950s, appraises the implications of the policies followed by the first Labour Government from 1935 to 1949 and the National Government that succeeded it between 1949 and 1957. They were fortunate that, through most of the period, favourable market conditions prevailed, especially in Britain, for New Zealand’s major pastoral exports. This provided a good basis for the expansion of the volume of goods and services available for a rapidly growing population. The emphasis of policy was on full employment, – it was an era of considerable shortage of labour – on redistribution through monetary benefits, free education and health services and state housing, and on a regulated stabilisation policy aiming at “fair shares” among producers. The paper discusses the implementation of these policies and their effects on the rate and pattern of growth and on the capacity of the New Zealand economy to develop in the less favourable external environment that was emerging.
Open Access
Leading for a purpose - Managerial leadership and strategic performance in public organisations
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2007) McLeod, Ross
Public sector organisations exist to achieve outcomes that will benefit the society or community they serve.1 The extent to which they succeed in this can be termed their strategic performance. Many factors influence the performance of public sector organisations in this respect. In particular, the operating environment, political leadership, and internal managerial leadership can all affect their strategic performance. Of particular interest is the way the operating environment (and especially its political leadership dimension) interacts with strategic leadership efforts by executives to affect strategic performance in public organisations. Understanding this interaction better should help to improve the strategic performance of public organisations. This paper is based on a research project, undertaken as part of the Master of Public Management degree at Victoria University of Wellington, which explored perceptions of strategic leadership issues in New Zealand local government organisations. The project involved a review of the literature on leadership in organisations and managing and leading public organisations, and a piece of primary research. Strategic leadership in public organisations is about leading an organisation so that it can contribute effectively to the realisation of beneficial outcomes for the community it serves. This has to be done in an environment where the outcomes to be pursued and the broad strategy for pursuing them are determined by a politically elected or appointed body. The research was concerned with a specific instance, the New Zealand local authority. The political body in this case is the elected council responsible for a region or municipality, and the organisation (also, confusingly, usually referred to as ‘the council’) is the council’s chief executive and employees. The research explored leadership and goal and strategy formulation with a small group of executives from local government organisations, in the context of the environments in which they operate. Research participants, who were drawn from three council organisations, answered questions in an interview process on their understanding of various factors influencing strategic leadership efforts in their organisations. From this exploration, some tentative conclusions about relationships between political leadership, strategic leadership efforts by executives and strategic performance can be drawn, with the proviso that the sample is small, and the data consists of participants’ perceptions and opinions rather than hard evidence.
Open Access
Post-2012 Burden Sharing: Towards an Ethical Approach
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2008) Kengmana, Lucas; Boston, Jonathan
This paper explores how the costs of mitigating and adapting to climate change should be shared by the international community. While it briefly surveys other desiderata for a new global agreement on climate change for the post-2012 period, its primary focus is on the ethical issues posed by the imperative to address human-induced climate change, and in particular the principles and considerations that should inform an ethical approach to global burden sharing.The first part of the paper outlines the context surrounding the current international negotiations for a new global agreement on climate change, which is designed to take effect when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires at the end of 2012. This includes consideration of the criteria that any new agreement must address and the relevance and importance of ethics at the international level. The second part examines burden sharing from an ethical perspective. It assesses the relevance and validity of a number of principles of distributive justice that are widely discussed in the relevant climate change literature – most notably, equality, capacity, historical responsibility, need, monetary costs and welfare costs. It then uses these principles to evaluate six proposed burden sharing frameworks. The third part considers the implications of these burden sharing frameworks for New Zealand. This includes a brief examination of the possible impacts of various proposed changes to some of the key rules underpinning the Kyoto Protocol.
Open Access
Climate Change and Food Security
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2008) Weaver, Sean
This paper explores the global trends associated with food security and climate change and the linkages between them. This comes at a time of unprecedented international concern for global food security, against a backdrop of dramatically fluctuating world food prices. Underlying the food security issue is a trend of rapidly growing populations in many developing countries, and projected changes in food production dynamics associated with a warming and drying climate for many regions during the 21st century. This paper looks into demand and supply trends associated with world food security, in an effort to inform a coordinated policy response to this emerging crisis. The final sections of the paper explore the implications for New Zealand, and then reflect on options for a broader global policy response.
Open Access
Low skill temporary migration in New Zealand: Labour market and human rights law as a framework for managing future migration
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2009) Williams, Jessie
International labour mobility has been on the rise in recent decades. In many countries including New Zealand, there has been a significant shift from permanent migration to temporary migration in order to meet labour demands in critical sectors. While many of those on the move are highly skilled, globally there is demand for particular types of low skill workers. However, almost all low skill workers who are legal migrants are temporary migrants and the main avenue for regulating the movement of low skill workers internationally has been guest worker schemes or temporary migrant worker programmes (TMWP). There are divergent opinions amongst policy makers and researchers on the merits of circular migration. Some see only negatives impacts for migrant workers: including dependency and exploitation, social exclusion, and irreversible social impacts on their families left behind. Others believe that the current iteration of guest worker schemes can complement both labour demand and development (through remittances, skill transfer and experience). This paper focuses on the host country, that is New Zealand’s perspective, and specifically on the human rights and labour law issues that will be relevant for any future expansion of low skill migration to New Zealand. In particular the focus is on low skill caring and related work rather than work in areas such as construction, manufacturing or primary sector industries. New Zealand’s Recognised Seasonal Employer Scheme for seasonal horticultural work, was successfully trialled as a new model of temporary migration. However extending work schemes to activities primarily servicing the needs of people and for work that is generally not seasonal, requires close examination. Temporary migrant workers are particularly vulnerable to abuse and exploitation and their isolation in rural areas or private homes, leaves them detached from the normal checks and balances covering the permanent workforce. Policy design in this area is a balancing exercise and will necessitate some trade off of rights such as family reunification and freedom of movement. However this paper uncovers a gap, notwithstanding the existence of a comprehensive international legal framework on migrant rights, between rhetoric and enforcement of rights in the comparative countries selected for their relevance to New Zealand. Unfortunately a middle ground appears difficult to identify with the reality being that the tap will be turned off when this option becomes too expensive. Ignoring or tolerating irregular migration is not the answer either. New Zealand can learn from the experiences of other countries but none of the models canvassed in this paper are ultimately preferred. Instead it becomes apparent that the success of Recognised Seasonal Employer Scheme has no further congruence with TMWP for the domestic and care sector. Work involving people, as opposed to products, is not only most problematic from a human rights and labour law perspective, but is also unlikely to fulfil the ‘triple win’ rationale for the resurrection of the current host of TMWP. Care work for example, necessitates the building of longer term relationships (and understanding of cultural norms of care) and therefore a policy that limits the amount of time a worker is allowed to remain in the country is unlikely to achieve the necessary results. Even if New Zealand favoured migrants from sending states who were actively involved in the training, welfare and protection of their temporary migrating citizens - training, oversight and enforcement in the host country are not straightforward. This paper concludes that the difficult and often more controversial decision to accept that some permanent low skill migration (and the accompanying protections afforded to those migrants) is appropriate and will have to be made. Policy needs to be developed not just from a migrants rights standpoint, but to address demand (which will of course not disappear), continuity of care for the elderly, and similar rights and protections of the clients.
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Paid domestic work: A private matter or a public policy issue?
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2009) Callister, Paul; Tortell, Lisa; Williams, Jessie
In industrialised countries most of the goods and services traditionally undertaken in the home are now largely sourced outside the household. The main exceptions are childcare, food preparation and washing and cleaning, which can be unpaid work or can be undertaken on a paid basis: this is paid domestic work. The ILO estimates that there are over 100 million domestic workers globally. These workers are often the most disadvantaged and vulnerable and, in many countries, are migrants, sometimes working illegally and sometimes part of guest worker schemes. Most domestic workers internationally are women. In New Zealand, domestic work was once an important source of paid employment for women with shortages of workers met by migration from the British Isles. While it had almost disappeared as a paid occupation post World War II, a number of reasons suggest a likely increase in the number of paid domestic workers in the near future, probably met, again, by migration. Nevertheless, little is known about New Zealand domestic workers, and paid domestic work fits uncomfortably with labour law, principally because the workplace is the private home. This has meant that overall, paid domestic work has, in a variety of ways, been a private matter in New Zealand. However, we suggest that it is time that paid domestic work is viewed as a public policy issue, particularly in relation to labour law and migration policy development.
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The New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme: A step in the right direction?
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2009) Bullock, David
This paper examines the development, features, merits and likely impacts of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (as implemented by amendments the Climate Change Response Act 2002). First, the paper explores the history and debate surrounding selection of policy instruments to reduce New Zealand’s greenhouse gas emissions with a particular focus on the New Zealand emissions trading scheme. Second, the paper describes the consultation processes that have been used in the development of the climate change policy in New Zealand. Third, the paper examines the sectoral requirements and effects of participation in the scheme and looks at the modelling of economic and environmental impacts that has been carried out by various organisations. Finally, some brief comparisons are made with schemes in other jurisdictions.
Open Access
The new governance arrangements for the public health sector and the need for wider public sector reform
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2010) Cook, Len; Hughes, Robert
Across the OECD countries the organisation of the public health service is subject to frequent scrutiny. In New Zealand there have been five major changes to the governance model for the public health service since the public finance and state sector reforms of twenty years ago. Reliance of politicians and public sector leaders on structural change may well continue. To anticipate the potential limitations and strengths of the reforms approved by the Cabinet in late 2009, this paper assesses the report of the Ministerial Review Group (MRG) and subsequent Cabinet decisions against seven themes relevant to improving the future capacity of public sector organisations. A central conclusion of the MRG’s report is the need for a new public health delivery model. To this end a key MRG recommendation is the creation of an independent National Health Board (NHB) to plan and monitor health service delivery through the District Health Boards. Consistent with this are proposals for the centralisation of some supporting functions and improved regional coordination. Cabinet has been more constrained in the changes eventually to be made. For example the NHB is an entity within the Ministry of Health. The Cabinet decisions also put in place initiatives to centralise support functions and improve regional coordination. However, little consideration is given to “consumers”, who are at times patients, and the special relationship which exists between medical professionals and patients. From this perspective, the MRG’s recommendations display strong managerial predilections. This paper concludes that to improve the new public health service delivery model, additional changes will be required. These changes are centred on: (1) improving consumer/patient and health professional/patient relationships; (2) building from this the other elements of a supporting service delivery value chain, including appropriate structures and funding mechanisms; and (3) nurturing an allied and uniting continuous improvement culture able to bring about change to the entire health system through its components within the public, private and voluntary sectors.
Open Access
Families, Ageing and Migration: Indian Communities in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2010) Davey, Judith; Keeling, Sally; Zodgekar, Arvind
The migration of older people to join family members in other countries and “trans-national’ families are issues of growing significance. They have implications for policies on retirement incomes, care and support services, and cultural retention, as well as for family health and cohesion. The New Zealand Positive Ageing Strategy supports the provision of culturally appropriate services to older people and the recognition of diversity within the older population. The Indian community in New Zealand is growing fast and becoming more diverse socio-economically and culturally. It is a significant element of the population and provides example of the interaction of families, ageing and migration. On the basis of interviews with representatives of Indian community organisations and family case studies, the research examines issues arising for older Indians and their families. Many of these also apply to older people in general, such as the need for social contact and opportunities for contribution and participation. Other issues, such as balancing co-residence and aspirations for independence, are more specific to the Indian community, but may apply also to other ethnic groups.
Open Access
Financial abuse of older people in New Zealand
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2011) Davey, Judith A; McKendry, Jayne
This working paper is linked to a workshop hosted by the Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, in June 2011. Following discussion of definitional issues and exploration of what we know about FEA, we identify strategies to prevent and reduce FEA in New Zealand. Our purpose is to promote discussion and development of policies which ensure a multi-faceted response to this issue. This will help to ensure that older people are free from elder abuse in all its forms.
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Joint or Shared Accountability: Issues and Options
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2011) Boston, Jonathan; Gill, Derek
Responsible and responsive government depends on effective accountability – at all levels within the state. To this end, democratic governments have typically established strong vertical or hierarchical accountability relationships. New Zealand has been no exception. Indeed, the state sector reforms introduced in the late 1980s emphasised formal, vertical, straight-line accountability. Yet some of the work of government involves collaboration or joint working across multiple agencies. This implies the need for shared and horizontal accountability. It also casts doubt on the wisdom of relying too heavily on vertical accountability, not least because this may undermine joint working. How, then, should accountabilities be managed in the context of shared or joint working across agencies and what principles and considerations should guide policy makers when designing such accountability arrangements? With these issues in mind, this paper begins with an exploration of certain key concepts – vertical and horizontal accountability, responsibility, answerability and blame – and considers the limitations of vertical models of accountability within a Westminster-type parliamentary democracy. It then explores the nature and problems associated with joint working in the state sector where accountability for particular activities or outcomes is shared between two or more organisations. The paper argues that there are certain ‘hard’ factor and ‘soft factors’ that must be addressed to enable joint working. It is also argued that four key issues need to be considered when designing the institutional and associated accountability arrangements for joint working: depth, co-ordination and alignment, complexity, and separability. The paper concludes by exploring the ‘levers’ available to accommodate new ways of working across public agencies.
Open Access
Experimentation and Learning in Policy Implementation: Implications for Public Management
(Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington, 2011) Eppel, Elizabeth; Turner, David; Wolf, Amanda
Policy objectives often can be simply stated. Yet, policy implementation frequently becomes complex, not only when the problem addressed is complex or wicked, such as family violence prevention, but also when the policy is simply stated, such as raising the GST. In complex implementation, effective organisational and individual practices facilitate learning by experimentation. Practices centre on detecting anomalies and then explicitly incorporating reflections on them in ongoing design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation activities. The research drew on policy and experimentation literature to propose a new framework for describing complex implementation practices, a range of cases studies, and discussions with policy managers. Findings highlight the need for a consistent strategic view of end goals, some means for testing changes, and the capacity to identify and assess results in order to redirect effort. Support for these practices involves ensuring appropriate permission to experiment, early and sustained activity conducted outside the responsible agencies, and open access to multiple sources of expertise. Implementing agencies and the policy management system need to take every opportunity to fully incorporate learning into their understanding of the agency’s role, capability requirements, and future focus.

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