Religion as opposition: a Gramscian analysis of three Maori millennial movements

Abstract

This thesis builds upon Gramsci's concepts of hegemony and counter-hegemony to develop an analysis of the conditions under which religion promotes either acquiescence or opposition. By the merging of two disparate literatures: (1) Gramsci's approach to religion and the development of counter ideologies and (2) the social, economic and political conditions in nineteenth century New Zealand, I shall examine how the Maori used religion as a form of opposition against a ruling group's domination. As agents of a dominant social group, the missionaries propagated an ideology that was based upon European mainly British capitalist beliefs and values. They therefore represent, within Gramsci's theoretical framework, traditional intellectuals. Through their religious teaching and the emphasis on education in general, the missionaries helped obtain the consent of the Maori to their own subordination. However to a certain extent the Maori managed to retain a degree of cultural autonomy which resulted in elements of traditional beliefs and selected Christian teachings being incorporated into a new or counter ideology. The initiative of the Maori prophets and their ability to articulate the collective consciousness of their group resulted in the evolution of an alternative view of reality. This new ideology gave rise to counter-hegemonic movements in the form of Maori millennialism. Through the connection of religion with politics, millennialism acted albeit briefly as a potent agent of social, economic and political change. As well as the promotion of an alternative world view and opposition to the status quo millennialism also helped establish a national identity and self awareness amongst the Maori. Therefore it is argued that ideological aspects found in these millennial movements of the 1860s continue to dominate and may be found in the current socio-political agenda of modern Maori protest as well as validating current ideologies such as te tino rangatiratanga.