Optimising Second Language Vocabulary Learning from Flashcards

Abstract

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how we can optimise vocabulary learning from flashcards (word cards) in a second or foreign language (L2). Flashcards are a set of cards where the L2 word is written on one side and its meaning, usually in the form of a first language (L1) translation, L2 synonym, or L2 definition, is written on the other. Despite the increasing recognition that flashcard learning is effective, efficient, and useful, our understanding of the optimal way to learn from flashcards is still limited. In order to investigate how we can optimise L2 vocabulary learning from flashcards, this thesis examined the effects of the following factors on flashcard learning: block size, retrieval formats, absolute spacing, relative spacing, retrieval frequency, and feedback timing.

Study 1 examined the effects of block size on flashcard learning. Block size refers to the number of words to be learnt at once. Existing studies on block size are limited in that block size and spacing were confounded. Study 1 set out to investigate the effects of block size in a more rigorous manner than existing studies by manipulating spacing as well as block size. The results showed that although a large block size is more effective than a small one when spacing is confounded, there is no difference between the two when they have equivalent spacing. The findings imply that introducing a large amount of spacing between encounters may be more important than using a particular block size. Study 1 also showed that superior performance during learning may not necessarily lead to better posttest performance.

Study 2 investigated the effects of retrieval formats on flashcard learning. Retrieval format refers to the format in which vocabulary is practised in flashcard learning. Retrieval practice can be categorised into four types: receptive recall, productive recall, receptive recognition, and productive recognition. Study 2 showed that the use of a productive recall format may be particularly effective for the acquisition of knowledge of orthography although it may decrease learning phase performance. For the acquisition of form-meaning connections, recognition formats were found to be more desirable than recall.

Study 3 examined the effects of absolute and relative spacing on flashcard learning. Absolute spacing refers to the total amount of spacing that separates all repetitions of a given item. Relative spacing refers to how study opportunities are distributed relative to one another. Examples of relative spacing schedules include equal and expanding spacing. Study 3 found no significant difference between equal and expanding spacing in their posttest scores, suggesting that relative spacing may have little effect on learning. The main effect of absolute spacing, however, was significant. Massed learning, which led to the best learning phase performance, turned out to be the least effective on the posttests.

Study 4 investigated the effects of retrieval frequency and feedback timing on flashcard learning. Retrieval frequency refers to the number of retrieval attempts in flashcard learning. The timing of feedback is concerned with when to provide feedback for retrieval. Feedback has been categorised into two types: immediate and delayed. The results suggested that it may be most desirable to practice retrieval five times. The advantage of repeated retrieval persisted 4 weeks after the treatment. Contrary to the predictions of the delay-retention effect, delaying feedback did not significantly increase learning.

Taken as a whole, the present thesis suggests that practising retrieval in a difficult and effortful condition (e.g., increasing spacing between encounters and using a demanding format such as productive recall) may enhance learning. The thesis also showed that learning phase performance may not necessarily be a good index of long-term retention. Pedagogically, the findings indicate that it may be useful to raise awareness that making mistakes during learning is not necessarily a sign of ineffective learning. The results from the four studies in this thesis are useful because they may allow us to make recommendations regarding the optimal way to learn from flashcards.